Gender Dimensions of Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of Smallholder Farmers in North Wollo Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

Abstract

Climate change presents significant challenges for resource-limited communities, intensifying their vulnerability and diminishing their adaptive capacities. Male-headed and female-headed farm households experience varied impacts of climate change and variability due to their unique socioeconomic contexts, leading to the development of distinct adaptation strategies. Understanding these gender dimensions of climate change perceptions and responses is essential for providing tailored extension and advisory services. This study investigates the gender dimensions of vulnerability and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability among smallholder farmers in the North Wollo zone of Ethiopia. Data were collected from 396 randomly selected smallholder farmers, supplemented by qualitative insights from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The analysis employed various statistical methods, including percentage, Chi-square tests, t-tests, and content analysis, alongside the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Vulnerability Index, multivariate probit model, and endogenous switching regression model for impact analysis. Results indicate that female-headed households (LVI = 0.542) are more vulnerable to climate change than male-headed households (LVI = 0.446), reflecting greater sensitivity to climate-related stresses and limited adaptive capacity. Key factors contributing to this vulnerability include reliance on rain-fed agriculture, restricted access to irrigation, smaller landholdings, limited access to early warning information, and weaker social networks. In contrast, male-headed households exhibit greater adaptive capacity due to higher livestock and land ownership, better access to education, microfinance, and agricultural services, along with stronger social networks. Despite shared challenges such as land degradation and crop losses, adaptation strategies differ significantly between genders. While 92% of male-headed households have perceived recent climate changes, only 78% of female-headed households have done so. Moreover, a greater proportion of male-headed households (73.78%) have implemented adaptation strategies compared to only 58.91% of female-headed households. The study identifies critical determinants influencing adaptation choices, including age, education, landholding size, income, and access to climate information and credit. Notably, multivariate probit analysis reveals that land size significantly impact adaptation decisions for female-headed households, emphasizing the necessity to address gendered inequities in land rights. Furthermore, the study evaluates the welfare impacts of adaptation strategies, demonstrating that these strategies significantly improve both food consumption and household income for male- and female-headed households. Farmers who implement adaptation measures report higher levels of food consumption and income compared to those who do not. Specifically, female-headed households that did not implement adaptation strategies would see a decline of Birr 963.06 in food consumption expenditure, while male-headed households would face a considerably larger potential loss of Birr 3561.95. Additionally, households that engaged in adaptation strategies experienced income increases of 19.4% for female-headed households and 23.94% for male-headed households compared to their non-adapting counterparts. Targeted interventions are needed to enhance female farmers’ adaptive capacity. These should include expanding small-scale irrigation, providing gendersensitive microfinance, delivering tailored extension services, and improving access to climate information through women’s farmer groups. Coordination by local agricultural offices, NGOs, and community organizations is essential to ensure effective implementation.